Roots of Classical Education

One major focus of this blog is education, specifically methodologies well-fitted for homeschooling. While I have long been interested in the Charlotte Mason method because that is essentially the method used with me when I was growing up, Husband and I are interested in classical education for a number of reasons. Come with me as I explore the roots of the classical education method(s).

How has Education Fit in the History of Christianity?

Briefly, Christians have used education from the beginning as a tool for service and evangelism (see Wright's quote in this post). Hopefully, I'll write another post about that topic to keep this one from becoming too long, but suffice it to say, classical Christian education was well in place by the School Edict of AD 362.

What's the Timeline of Classical Education Specifically?

Classical education has a long history, beginning in "classical" times. Please bear in mind that the sources I found that are easier for the general reader to understand and process are also overwhelmingly slanted toward the idea that classical education is awesome (or similar strongly positive adjective). Based on this source, we can trace several milestones in classical education:

• 400 BC: Aristotle founded a school in Greece for training leaders in virtue, using the concepts of trivium (grammar, logic, rhetoric) and quadrivium (arithmetic, astronomy, music, geometry). Though these Latin terms weren't yet used until AD 500 or thereabouts, the intended outcomes were similar across time: fortitude, justice, prudence, temperance, and others.
• AD 0-200: Greek schools continued; the apostle Paul and other biblical authors were influenced by these philosophical ideas and brought them into their writings. Second-century church fathers writing on how classical schools and Christianity related included Justin Martyr, Origen, and Clement of Alexandria.
• AD 325: the first Council of Nicaea took place. Additional church fathers at this time were educated using the trivium-quadrivium concept and used the skills they learned to clearly think through and express what today are major Christian doctrines that weren't necessarily "visible" or "clear" in the Bible.
• It is assumed that the classical education model was dominant in Western cultures in the next centuries.
• AD 1852-1918: public schools were set up in all of the United States.
• AD 1950: peak enrollment in public schools (80-90%). Progressive education was introduced around this time, which had quite different methodology and assumptions from classical education.
• AD 1970s: Mortimer Adler reacted against the progressive model to develop the Paideia Schools as a secular, classical alternative to public education.
• AD 1980: three parent-founded schools sought to revive the classical model from a Christian perspective.

Two Takes on the Modern Classical Movement

Based on the timeline above, it is safe to say that the "modern" classical movement started around the 1970s. I found two very interesting sources (this one by Susan Wise Bauer, a big name in Christian classical education, and this one by Lisa VanDamme, founder of the VanDamme Academy in California.

Susan Wise Bauer

Let's first look at Susan's conception of a modern classical education model. Key components of such a model are (1) progression through 3 stages (trivium) as the child grows and matures, (2) focus on written and oral language to educate, and (3) recognition of the interrelatedness of all knowledge. 

Relating to point (1), grades 1-4 or thereabouts are spent in the "grammar stage" where the focus is on memorization of poems, stories, concrete or abstract facts, and rules of language (English and Latin, typically). Grades 5-8 or so are spent in the "logic stage" to focus on the abstract as well as the "why" behind facts, fields of knowledge, and the rules of formal logic. Grades 9-12 are spent in the "rhetoric stage" to learn how to express oneself and one's knowledge in an effective way, whether oral or written. Some academic specialization occurs during this stage.

Relating to point (2), the focus on using language rather than video images is meant to force the brain to use more focused attention to learn. I think many people who understand how one learns would agree with this rationale.

Related to point (3), the implication of integrating the quadrivium with a trivium timeline, for Bauer, is that the child cycles through all of recorded history three times throughout a K-12 education, building complexity with each layer. The first grade of each cycle is spent in ancient history, the second in the Middle Ages, the third in the Renaissance and Reformation, and the fourth in modern times (Enlightenment and after).

Overall, Bauer sees classical education as extremely systematic and therefore beneficial to helping students link knowledge together in their heads, developing moral virtue (per Aristotle) along the way.

Lisa VanDamme

VanDamme writes for The Objective Standard, which applies Ayn Rand's objectivist philosophy to other fields of knowledge. Please note: Objectivism is, as Husband puts it, as close to Satanism as one can get without being actually Satanist, because it treats selfishness as a virtue. The title of this particular 2007 article ("The False Promise of Classical Education") clearly indicates the conclusions.

First, the flaws of classical education from a non-classical perspective, based on both objectivism and current theories of how children learn:

• Organizing knowledge non-hierarchically--asking younger children to learn abstractions (e.g., grammar rules explicitly stated) before letting their older selves learn specifics
• Rigidly distinguishing between content and thinking skills about that content
• Insistence on over-integration of knowledge and theories, leading to an exaggerated Dunning-Kruger effect.

VanDamme's biggest issue with classical education as put forth in the modern era relates to her third point, i.e., that its integration of abstract ideas from various fields of knowledge isn't valuable because it's not based on reality that can be perceived (first point--this is not quite accurate, as actually looking at well-implemented classical curricula shows). She points out that four recent approaches (1970s-1980s) to reviving classical education share the same faults. I appreciate that she differentiates these into secular and Christian:

• Mortimer Adler's Great Books Program and Paideia Proposal (secular)
• E. D. Hirsch's Core Knowledge curriculum (secular)
• Wise and Bauer's Well-Trained Mind (Christian background but appealing to many secular homeschoolers)
• Dorothy Sayer's Lost Tools of Learning (Christian)

The article's critique of many Christian classical educators and curricula is correct in that Enlightenment epistemology is commonly used when educating children in a Christian classical setting, specifically related to interpretation of the Bible. This epistemology (system of gaining knowledge) has three components: rationalism, empiricism, and skepticism.

• Rationalism: doubt anything that can possibly be doubted by coming up with scenarios in which the "thing" would be false. (Big names: René Descartes, Gottfried Leibnitz.)
• Empiricism: prioritize knowledge that can be gained by direct measurement of something perceptible to the senses. (Big name: Francis Bacon.)
• Skepticism: criticize any authority regarding belief in knowledge. (Big names: Pierre Bayle, David Hume.)

I would agree that many Christian curricula do reflect an Enlightenment mindset, though primarily in the empiricist strand (not so much the other strand). This is typically combined with evangelicalism, leading to a literalistic interpretation of certain biblical passages that are better seen as figurative or in another literary model (ancient near Eastern literature) not seen today. There is no self-examination of the results of such teachings (e.g., the mode of creation) in light of the greater body of knowledge. As an analogy, a fish in water doesn't realize that it's in water.

However, I would argue that VanDamme utilizes just as much Enlightenment epistemology, if not more, when it comes to her preferred system of teaching and learning. This is not to say that she's wrong, but more to say that her perspective is incomplete.

Is Classical Education (In)compatible with Charlotte Mason?

There are plenty of opinions on either side of this question. As we can see from the below, your answer depends in part on your specific "flavor" of classical education. Sonya Shafer, an eloquent proponent of Charlotte Mason methodology and philosophy, interviewed Karen Glass on a book (Consider This) she wrote on the combination. (On general pros and cons of today's classical education method from a non-Christian perspective, check out this post.)

(Potentially) Incompatible

Several articles seeming to lean toward the incompatibility of the two methods tend to focus more on the differences. Here are my sources (I highly recommend that, if you only read one, read the third--from the Charlotte Mason Poetry site--it does take issue with Karen Glass's book and methodology in researching it, so is worth reading as an additional perspective).

• "The" classical approach is based on highly structured trivium and quadrivium distinctions whereas Mason's method takes a different stance than those that subscribe to a trivium-based cognitive and social development model for childhood.
• Classical approaches tend to focus more on declarative knowledge, whereas Mason integrates life activities (procedural knowledge)
• Classical approaches focus on displaying knowledge in the marketplace of ideas, whereas Mason integrates much of education with being outside in nature and appreciating the creation as an individual in society.
• Blending the trivium-based classical approach with a Charlotte Mason philosophy produces a hybrid diluting the good qualities of each method.

Compatible

Some more articles seem to lean toward the compatibility of a blended approach. This appeals to many homeschoolers; bear in mind that my sources are from an individual homeschooling mother (with potential issues in generalizing to others), a curricular resource website, and Susan Wise Bauer.

• Memory work inherent in the grammar stage of a classical model can work with narration inherent throughout Mason's method
• For one-on-one subjects and formal instruction in writing/grammar (where each child in a family is at a different knowledge level), classical techniques may work better, while for family subjects (where all children can participate at the same level) Mason's approach is smoother but may not teach writing mechanics as well
• The principle of prioritizing literature over visual media (in any classical approach, whether or not based on the trivium) fits extremely well into a more tailored Mason approach
• Mason may be seen as having adapted classical approaches from historical use to her more modern historical context; classical educators today (including Bauer) view themselves as doing the same
• The short-lesson principles of Mason's method can certainly be used in an otherwise trivium-based approach

What are Accessible Classical Education Resources?

If, after reading and considering the content of this post, you are leaning toward using partial or complete classical approaches, here are accessible resources I have read and can recommend to provide thorough descriptions and useful information.

• Sister Miriam Joseph, The Trivium (Roman Catholic perspective, specifically Thomist)
• Laura Bergquist, Designing Your Own Classical Curriculum (also Roman Catholic)
• Susan Wise Bauer & Jessie Wise, The Well-Trained Mind (currently Bauer attends an evangelical church, as far as I can ascertain)
• J. P. Moreland & William Lane Craig, Philosophical Foundations of a Christian Worldview (philosophical/logic portions which comprise a few of the many chapters)

What other sources have you found helpful?

Roots of Three-Streams Anglicanism

Readers will have known for at least 4 months that I am an Anglican, specifically a member of the ACNA, and was interested in learning about the ACNA since December of last year. What is the historical background of this denomination, specifically its "three-streams" aspect?

What is a Brief History of the ACNA?

The Anglican Church in North America has been around since 2009, starting with congregations that left either the (very liberal) Episcopal Church-USA and the (roughly equally liberal) Anglican Church of Canada over gay marriage and non-heterosexual ordination. ACNA congregations follow the same episcopal structure as the rest of Anglicanism--archbishops > bishops > priests--and include the 2008 Jerusalem Declaration and the 1571 Thirty-Nine Articles in the 2019 edition of the Book of Common Prayer which is used in all churches.

The ACNA is in fellowship with most of African Anglicanism, which in turn is in fellowship with African Lutheranism, which in turn is in fellowship with the LCMS. However, talks between the ACNA and LCMS over potential fellowship broke down around 2016 in the USA (and potentially after 2019 in Europe) because the LCMS stuck with its decision on women's ordination, while the ACNA left the decision up to each diocese of whether or not to ordain women as deacons and/or priests (never as bishops or archbishops).

What are the Three Streams?

Rev. Les Fairfield describes the 3 streams from an apparently pro-Reformed perspective. He uses different names for each stream that show which perspective he comes from. The first stream is Reformed (Fairfield uses the broader term "Protestant"), stemming from the English Reformation in the 1500s. Emphases include faith based (solely) on the biblical text and one's own understanding of it, personal evangelism, and potentially revivalism. 

The second stream is the Pentecostal/Holiness stream, which emerged around the 1700s with Methodism. Holiness and Pentecostal movements branched off around the 1900s. Both sets of movements claim the same biblical roots as the Reformation. However, the emphases are different--the activity of Holy Spirit in individual believers for ongoing sanctification and exercise of spiritual gifts.

The third stream is the High Church, or Anglo-Catholic, stream, which emerged around the 1800s in the Oxford movement. This stream places a high priority on liturgical worship, using the consistent liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer (Sunday Eucharist, daily prayer for individuals and families in long and short form, etc.). Over time, practice of regular liturgical worship allows the beauty of the Word to be less obstructed.

What are Pros and Cons of Each Stream?

The ACNA has been described similar to a melting pot, with allowance for great breadth in certain areas of theology. The streams' differences contribute to this, plus the denomination's relative novelty (2009). Each person in a group has a natural tendency to think their group has (almost) everything right and that others have things (almost all) wrong. I'll do my best to channel my--and Husbands'--Vulcan side, per our college nicknames, to take a more bird's-eye view on each stream, given our background in the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod and definite preference for high-church worship. Sources for pros and cons are this link for Reformed, this link for Pentecostal/Holiness, this link and this link for High-Church, and my own conversations with Husband.

Reformed Pros

• Reformation-era hymns are, for the most part, quite good! N. T. Wright views a good hymn selection for a given worship service as having no more than a single hymn or song from a single decade. The older, the better, for me.
• Sola Scriptura - the 66 canonical books of the Old and New Testaments (including prolegoumena and antilegoumena) are the highest authority
• Sola Fide - justification (God's legal pronouncement of "not guilty") by faith in Christ
• Contrasting God's grace with man's depravity/original and actual sin

Reformed Cons (mostly errors of Calvinism)

• Over-emphasis on God's sovereignty, to the point of determinism (e.g., Calvinist theologian and pastor John Piper has said point blank that God plans not only answers to our prayers but the prayers themselves).
• Human reason is placed above Scripture in practice, to make an interpretation (of English text translations) fit into a predetermined logical mold even when historical interpretation of the text would say otherwise. This also involves placing human reason over the earliest traditions of biblical interpretation (church fathers).
• Denial of simul iustus et peccator, i.e., stating that the regenerate person does not have a sin nature any longer, so if a Christian sins, implying that s/he isn't really a Christian and never was one to begin with.
• Sharply divided covenant theology, i.e., claiming that the people before Christ were saved not by grace but by works.
• Limited atonement, i.e., claiming that Christ loved/loves and died for only those who will eventually be saved, instead of loving and dying for all humankind.

At least one person has advocated for "one-stream" (Reformed-only) Anglicanism. I fail to see how this is different from Calvinism.

Pentecostal/Holiness Pros

• Openness to the continuing, diverse working of the Holy Spirit. Many Anglicans are either continuationists (gifts still common) or soft cessationists (gifts rare but still existent).
• Giving the Holy Spirit His due, rather than the under-emphasis that occurs in some traditions

Pentecostal/Holiness Cons

• Incorrect separation of entrance of the Holy Spirit from one's conversion or regeneration (this doctrine is not part of orthodox Christianity or Anglicanism, so it is not taught in the churches)
• Teaching about the Rapture, i.e., pre-millennialism, which isn't the best interpretation of the (apocalyptic/figurative) passages in Revelation
• Incidence of modalism (a Trinitarian heresy)
• Among laypersons especially, over-emphasis on personal interpretation of one's English translation of the Bible. This isn't unique to the Pentecostal tradition, however.

High Church Pros

• Consistency of liturgy that clearly displays doctrines of baptismal regeneration and the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist
• Liturgy used his historic, based not only in 1500s-ish ceremonies but also concepts very consistent with the Didache and other documents/practices used in the early church (e.g., each ecumenical creed is completely traceable to Scripture citations)
• Use of the rubrics in the Book of Common Prayer ensures unified presentation of theological elements (e.g., words of administration of the elements of the Eucharist)

High Church Cons

• Adherents can sometimes be persnickety to over-emphasize the stream's importance
• Seen by some (incorrectly) as a gateway to Roman Catholicism despite the stark differences in theology
• Some split (or want to split) from the ACNA for similar reasons cited by the LCMS

What Can 3-Streams Church Life Look Like?

Thus far, I have worshiped with Husband and Child at two ACNA parishes, one visited only once during a road trip and the other our primary congregation of attendance. Here are some features of my blended experience of 3-streams worship and congregational life based on these churches:

• Every worship service uses the same order of service (so Child and I can follow even if we can't hold a Book of Common Prayer due to wiggles), the same vestments for those assisting.
• Songs and hymns chosen depend on the congregational "flavor." Our home congregation uses a small selection of music composed primarily after the 1800s, and the road-trip congregation used a selection of older hymns.
• Lay readers (vested lectors) or deacons are called upon to read all assigned Scripture passages for the day.
• Sanctuaries, as of yet, are generally not built by ACNA congregations but are purchased or borrowed from congregations in other denominations, because the ECUSA confiscated the buildings from seceding congregations that would form the ACNA.
• Congregations are intentionally small (< 200 members) with membership renewed annually, and use of an African church planting model (place a priest, then grow the congregation around him).
• Preaching sticks to the text at hand, with a great awareness of what the biblical authors intended within their historical context.

The Apostolic Fathers: A Guided Tour

Please note: This post does reference some sensitive topics about immoral practices in the first-century world of the Greeks. 

Before I read through the writings of the Apostolic Fathers, at Husband's suggestion (he's been working on me for the last 3-ish years to read them), I had views on church organization and history essentially based on the biblical text and study Bible notes. This wasn't necessarily bad, but after actually reading the writings for historical context, I can see that I had extremely incomplete knowledge. Like many in contemporary America, I was uninformed on the reasons for several positions on church order and doctrine, which was a problem.

Who Were the Church Fathers?

The fathers were those Christians whose writings are preserved from the first several centuries of Christianity. They span several generations of Christians but typically there is a line of influence directly from apostles or the apostles' disciples. Of note, each either wrote/taught before, or spoke against, Gnosticism. Here is a sample of the fathers who wrote around the time of the Council of Nicaea:

Who Were the Apostolic Fathers?

All information in this section is from Michael Holmes' interlinear translation of the mostly-Greek and partly-Latin Apostolic Fathers. (I've linked the 2006 third edition but have been reading the 1999 second edition.) Husband recommended that I read these in a slightly different order than presented, mostly chronological. The historical setting in which the writings of the Apostolic Fathers were copied and preserved spanned 65-135 AD for the most part. The Apostles died before or around 65 AD, at which time Christianity was flourishing. 

Starting around 70 AD, relationships with majority Judaism began to deteriorate because the Temple was destroyed. Several would-be messiahs revolted thereafter, the most notable being Simon Bar Kochba in 132. Meanwhile, the church structure was becoming more centralized and standardized, more urban and intellectual. Even though Peter and Paul were (traditionally documented as) executed by Nero, persecution en masse was quite sporadic until around 250 AD.

Didache

Although I had heard of this anonymous writing in early high school thanks to an evening church class on the Book of Concord, I hadn't known how narrowly read this is/was. Here's what stood out to me:

• The "way of life" consists of the 2 greatest commandments plus the Golden Rule (bless, pray, fast). Give generously to the right person, not to someone who would misuse the gift.
• Applications of the (Lutheranly-subdivided) 5th and 6th Commandments include homosexual pedophilia, abortion, and infanticide, which were common in Greek culture. Discern whom to reprove, whom to pray for, and whom to love sacrificially.
• Support your preacher often; spend time listening to the saints every day.
• Parents are responsible to calmly teach their children to fear God.
• The only prohibited food for Christians in the time of writing was meat sacrificed to idols.
• Baptism for adults occurs after catechesis, by immersion in running cold water. Both candidate and baptizer were to fast for 1-2 days prior, and commune after the baptism.
• Eucharistic practice included set pre- and post-Communion prayers for laity and extemporaneous prayers by the prophets.
• True apostles will ask for hospitality for at most 3 days, and ask for only enough food for travel to their next city. Prophets must live rightly.

The Letter of the Romans to the Corinthians (1 Clement)

The bishop of the church in Rome at the time wrote this epistle to the church at Corinth, appealing to Scripture via near-constant quotations of Old and New Testament books that had been in canon as of the time of writing, and not supporting later Roman Catholic interpretations related to the papacy. He wrote this in response to an intra-church revolt in Corinth, around 95-97 AD (roughly when Revelation was written). Here are my notes:

• "Submit to the presbyters" is repeated! Episcopal succession is one of the big differences between where I was (LCMS) and where I am (ACNA).
• Corinthians had obeyed Paul for the most part, before sinning due to pride.
• Long Old Testament examples include, but are by no means limited to, Cain and Abel, Moses' flight, Abraham, Lot, and Rahab as well as the Apostle Paul. Virtues and vices explored by means of these examples include jealousy, humility, faith, resurrection hope, works, and intercession.
• All roles within the church (e.g., husband, wife, priest, deacon, child) are to be instructed toward right knowledge and action.
• Justification by works: before others (as James describes). Do good zealously because we are justified (before God) by faith.
• Order in regular worship and the church year is related to apostolic succession, bishops, and deacons (Septuagint translation of Isaiah 60:17).

The Fragments of Papias

Papias was the bishop of Hierapolis around 130 AD. Themes of his work likely included the millennium and authors of the Gospels. Contemporaneous with Polycarp and an additional disciple of the Apostle John, he is thought to have written down the account of the woman caught in adultery and been strongly influential on Irenaeus. The church historian Eusebius was of the opinion that any interpretation that assumes millennialism is a misunderstanding--however, the (lesser) error of chiliasm was often held by early Fathers. The fragments are others' references to him because his work has not survived.

Of note, at least one of the fragments addresses the differences in the Gospel accounts. Much has been written about the benefits of these differences (even apparent contradictions) because that reflects the non-colluding character of the eyewitnesses who provided the accounts. The early church knew about the differences and didn't mind, because no tertiary traditions or details in the differences are of significance to doctrine.

The Letters of Ignatius

Written somewhere between 98 and 117 AD, these letters were composed to churches in a circuit during the last few weeks of Ignatius' life after his arrest. Central issues addressed include false teachers, church unity and structure (especially that the bishop locates the church), and his impending death. Holmes includes the (seven) generally-accepted middle-recension letters as authentic per Eusebius. The style is between Pauline and secular, and literary context is influenced by the Johannine and Matthean communities. Notes on specific epistles:

• Ephesians: obey the bishop (as you would Christ), then the presbyter, then the deacon. Go to church! Ignatius' chains are spiritual pearls. Mysteries that have been revealed for saving faith include the virginity of Mary, and the birth and death of Jesus.
• Magnesians: the bishop, though young, has authority as a shepherd over the congregation; acting like a Christian to be worthy of the name "Christian" entails obeying one's bishop. Gather together in unity. Don't live by Judaism - worship on Sunday, not Saturday. Christianity is a historic and historically true faith.
• Trallians: being subject to the bishop = living in Christ. Deacons need to stay out of criticism. Have equal respect for all offices (bishop, presbyter, deacon). Ignatius longs to suffer for Christ. 5: "For we still lack many things, that we might not lack God." Heresy is compared to poisoned "food." Bishops should be gentle, strong, wise, and forgiving. The substance of Christ is shown in the real, bodily events of the Christian life.
• Romans: neither rush nor discourage death.
• Philadelphians: "Theophorus" (God-bearer) is addressed in this and several other epistles. A bishop should be wise enough to be silent. The events of the Passion are true. There is one Eucharist. Jewish converts must embrace Jesus wholly. Listen to those in the holy orders! Learn about/from Jesus' person and life plus the Old Testament.
• Smyrnaeans: Christ's grace means loving the marginalized, regularly communing while celebrating the Real Presence in the Eucharist, and praying. The bishop's authority validates a church's Eucharist (this is a major theme). The word "catholic" is first used here.
• Polycarp (Smyrna's very good bishop): focus on unity, patience, prayer for understanding, 1:1 relationships, diligence, frequent meeting, sermons on chastity, Baptism as a shield, and the awareness of time as belonging to God.

The Letter of Polycarp to the Philippians

Polycarp was involved prominently in preserving texts that were in the New Testament canon. In this letter, he quotes much New Testament Scripture in a simple style (although he names only Ephesians specifically as Scripture). Notes:

• Outsiders have wrong beliefs which lead to wrong behaviors (theopraxy-orthopraxy coin)
• The goal as Christians is the receipt of "the world that is to come" (new creation)
• Valens was a former priest, deposed because of a lack of self-control which showed that he didn't "get" his office

Martyrdom of Polycarp

This is a traditionally held account by eyewitnesses to the death of Polycarp at the hands of those loyal to Caesar. A 90-minute YouTube movie on his life and death is mostly accurate. Notes:

• Conflict of Lord Christ (the core of the gospel) versus Lord Caesar
• Enthusiasm (eagerly handing oneself over right away) was seen as dangerous to faith because enthusiasts would then recant and become cowardly rather than remaining steadfast
• Christ's presence prevented martyrs from reacting with pain to physical torture
• Polycarp prayed audibly for 2 hours when his captors came, delaying his capture
• At the stadium where he was to be executed, God spoke so all Christians there could hear and understand it. Polycarp refused to explain his doctrine in that it would cast pearls before swine. He declined to be nailed to the stake (unworthy of Christ) so was bound. His body didn't burn, but smelled like incense. The Christians weren't allowed to bury his body when he died because after death he was cremated, so they buried his bones.

The Epistle of Barnabas

This beloved writing explores, via allegorical exegesis (popular among Jews and Greeks) how Christ and Judaism relate. Its three basic doctrines are the hope of eternal life, righteousness in a legal/courtroom sense, and love shown by works. Notes:

• Habitual deliberate sin is the same as not keeping covenant (e.g., in Judaism per the New Perspective), and so it can lead to losing one's salvation. Election means do good works!
• The epistle weaves together many Old Testament quotes, typically from the Septuagint.
• Circumcision isn't unique to Judaism.
• Takes the position of the 6 days of creation referring to 6,000 years (though this question/debate is far beyond the scope of this post)

An Ancient Christian Sermon

Also known as 2 Clement, this epistle is actually anonymous. It is the earliest writing to quote much of the New Testament as canonized/accepted Scripture. Themes are ora et labora, and the fact that belonging to the church (being baptized and staying in the practice of faith) saves one.

The Shepherd of Hermas

Among the Apostolic Fathers, this writing is unique for several reasons, especially (1) much longer length (it took me weeks to finish), (2) almost zero quotation of Scripture, and (3) almost exclusive use of elaborate parables. Traditionally, Hermas was the brother to Bishop Pius. This letter deals with issues particular to the church in Rome especially relating to post-baptismal sin. Questionable doctrines (likely related to point 2...) are marked with a question mark in parentheses. Notes:

• Visions (5):
• Desire is the conflict between sin and self-control
• Don't hold grudges, but discipline the family as needed
• The church is like a tower built on the water of salvation
• Foreshadowed the widespread persecution of Christians; one can escape (?) because of total trust in God
• The Shepherd appeared in the last vision, promising to be with Hermas for the rest of his life
• Mandates (12):
• God as creator is as a unity (Trinity/tri-unity) - hold to this doctrine
• Be sincere and innocent
• Speak only the truth
• Be faithful in your marriage, but divorce for known adultery is permissible. Repentance indicates understanding of right teaching. Habitual sin cannot (?) be forgiven.
• Be patient in all things rather than being angry or bitter
• Two angels (good and evil) are with each person (?) to influence them
• Fear God and Satan's works, but not Satan himself. "Every creature fears the Lord, but not all keep his commandments."
• Be self-controlled when it comes to evil, but don't control or limit the amount of good you do.
• Repent . . . then ask of God single-mindedly for requests (without thinking "I'm not worthy"), even if the answer is received slowly.
• An angry temper and double-mindedness can cause bad grief that grieves the Holy Spirit.
• Test the prophets by (1) presence of spiritual fruit in their lives, and (2) whether they prophesy only in a congregational setting rather than on their own
• Evil desires (e.g., adultery, luxury) can destroy Christians. Believe that you can obey God.
• Parables (10):
• Living abroad, take only what you need and obey the laws of the "country" where your true citizenship is. Help the poor.
• The vine must climb an elm to bear fruit--so also, rich Christians provide for poor ones.
• In this creation, one can't distinguish the righteous from sinners.
• In the new creation, the righteous will bear full fruit. Don't devote your life wholly to business, but to Christ.
• Fast from evil! Keep doing good, especially after you receive a reward. Give the grocery money to the poor when you fast from eating.
• God afflicts people in this life as punishment for unbelief (?) and/or to incentivize repentance. Most luxury is harmful to Christians' faith.
• Is the head of household (responsible) punished for his family's sins? Origin of the idea of penance as part (?) of forgiveness.
• There are degrees of sinfulness.
• An analogy is drawn between a cumulative tower of saints and the church. Good stones can be added and bad ones removed until the church is complete.
• Obey Christ's commandments to "cure" sins that have been committed. Rescue others from distress lest you be responsible if they take matters into their own hands.

The Epistle to Diognetus

This anonymous letter (though Eusebius thought Quadratus might have written it) is the only writing in the collection to address non-Christians as an apologetics work. Targets of early apologists (115-225 AD) included pagans' accusations of Christians practicing atheism (not worshiping traditional gods), cannibalism (Eucharist), infant sacrifice (Baptism), incest (referring to fellow Christians as brothers and sisters), and the novelty of Christianity (versus being a historic faith in the mind of God). Early apologists included Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Aristides, Theophilus of Antioch, Tatian, Quadratus (in fragments), Melito of Sardis (in fragments), Appolinaris of Hierapolis (in fragments), Aristo of Pella (lost), and Miltiades (lost).

One copy of the Epistle was from the 1200s or 1300s, copied in 1580/1590. From these copies we have the accepted Greek text. Compared especially to the Shepherd of Hermas, the style of this writing was refreshingly fluent and Scripture-quoting/inspired. Notes:

• Questions addressed include (1) God's identity and right worship, (2) nature of Christian love, and (3) why Christianity emerged at the time that it did.
• Question (1): God is not a manmade, impotent idol. He is the creator of all made things, needing nothing. His proper worship is neither pagan nor Judaic (with circumcision and "fussy" feasts required--some unfortunate anti-Semitism).
• Question (2): Christians love each other by being good citizens of both earth and heaven, not exposing their newborn children as pagans did, being generous, being faithful to their spouses, loving yet persecuted. The soul is to the body as the Christian is to the world (diffuse, in not of, invisible yet visible).
• Question (3): God had to reveal Himself as different from philosophers' foolish speculations and more than natural knowledge. He patiently let mankind sin during the planned wait for the eternal Son to be incarnated so that sin's consequences would be fulfilled and sin would be fully atoned for. (Paragraph 9 felt like a drink of good wine, encapsulating the best of Protestantism.)
• The author was a disciple to the apostles. He writes several doxologies and creeds to the eternal Christ.
• Paragraph 12 quote: "But the tree of knowledge does not kill; on the contrary, disobedience kills." Reference to 1 Corinthians 8:1.

Summary Case to Read the Fathers

After reading this book, I find myself with a deeper appreciation for historic Christianity, and better grounded to defend orthodox interpretations of various doctrines. I'm a long way off from having a full knowledge of the early church, but my appetite has been whetted to find out.

History: Culture and Physical Therapy

During the month of July, I'll be looking at "roots" and history. One aspect of history is the culture people live in. "Culture" can be tricky to define--"I'll know it when I see it"--so this week I want to dive into an aspect of culture that I am especially familiar with: that relating to physical therapy, my day job.

What is Physical Therapy?

As I define physical therapy to my students, patients, and their families, what I tell them is that physical therapists are human movement system experts, similar to how cardiologists are experts in the heart and blood vessels or immunologists are experts in the human immune system. The human movement system is more functional than structural, because it pulls pieces from different parts of the body that all relate to how well one moves. 

History in the US

Worldwide, physical therapy ("physiotherapy" outside the US) originated as a formalized profession in the 1800s. However, in the United States, the polio epidemic and various internal and external wars provided the impetus for early PTs to function under direct supervision of a physician, focusing on muscle strengthening and stretching as Reconstruction Aides.

Over the next few decades, PTs became more autonomous as their research and scope of practice expanded into all treatment settings including hospitals, nursing homes, assisted/independent living facilities, outpatient clinics, and people's homes. Although in certain settings some insurers still do require medical supervision (that is, a physician signing off on the physical therapy plan of care), the public perspective on physical therapy has grown generally more positive.

The American Physical Therapy Association (APTA) was founded in 1921, with women as the main corpus of members. Many PTs and PT assistants are members in this association, which provides member and nonmember benefits including legislative advocacy and professional development opportunities. Educationally, the first entry-level degree (1927-1990s) was a bachelor's of science, which became a master's in the mid-1990s and a non-PhD doctorate in 1993-present. Currently, the standard for entry-level education as a physical therapist is a post-bachelor's doctorate, and a physical therapist assistant a 2-year college degree.

Philosophical Groundings

A Renaissance Biologist post wouldn't be complete without some talk about philosophy! My sources for this section are two articles from Physical Therapy (research journal) and Physiopedia. Sister Francois** argued in 1967 that a central guiding principle for all rehabilitation specialists (including physical, occupational, and speech therapists) is the widespread impact of physical limitation in all areas of life, including ability to work, valuing of oneself, and interacting with others in society. Thus, it isn't enough simply to assess someone's ability to move and tell them what exercises to do--motivational skills are a key piece of physical therapy practice.

Healthcare ethicist Debra Gorman-Badar, in 2021, looked at the philosophy of PT from an internal morality viewpoint: what values or senses of what's right and wrong (should) guide physical therapists and physical therapist assistants? She contrasted PT with medicine as she applied a medical ethicist's theory (Pellegrino, in turn based on Alasdair MacIntyre's work) to this profession--her entire article is worth reading.

• Disability exists, and medicine is unable to heal 100% of disability resulting from illness, disuse, or injury.
• Professionals act in a certain way differently than non-professionals. This is influenced by the conflict between selfless and selfish behaviors of people in various professions. However, at the core of a profession is the telos of reducing some aspect of human suffering.
• Physical therapists act uniquely, in that patients' functional abilities change over time, patients' interactions and relationships are not only with the PT and family but others in society, and patients' roles in the physical therapy process are more active than passive.
• The telos (end goal) of physical therapy, therefore, is not so much the right decision but the right/good process that includes the patient as an active participant in improving their own physical function.

Finally, Physiopedia puts things a bit more simply: core principles of rehabilitation include

• Individual rights over health ("management" implied)
• Individual worth independent of physical or mental abilities
• Individual responsibility to take an active role in health care
• Therapists' ability to promote adaptation (of individual to environment, or environment to individual)
• Therapists' emphasis of abilities over disabilities
• Therapists' treatment of the whole person, early on in the disease/disability process
• Therapists' prioritization of education to patients and their support systems
• Therapists' concern for people groups (population wellness) over just individual wellness

Biopsychosocial Models of Care

Certain health professions use biomedical models for care--look at signs and symptoms, rapidly selecting the most appropriate high-level evidence to apply, and making a diagnosis that results in a specialist referral and/or a medication prescription (Drench et al. 2012). While this works for most patients, resulting in accurate diagnosis and treatment, it doesn't accommodate for certain factors.

That's where biopsychosocial models come in, adopted by rehabilitation therapies among others. Providers using a biopsychosocial mindset look at each patient's personal factors (like race, socioeconomic status, and degree of family support) and ask patients to collaborate in setting goals for treatment. It does take more time and resources to implement than a biomedical model does.

How is Culture Defined?

I am approaching this question from a perspective of physical therapy and health professions in general. I know that you may come from a different perspective, and I would welcome your thoughts to the discussion!

Drench et al.

The textbook that has been used in the past, including when I took the courses I now teach, is by physical therapist Meredith Drench and colleagues (2012). The concept of culture occupies a fairly small section of the book, because the overall focus is on the psychosocial aspects of a biopsychosocial model of physical therapy practice. 

In chapter 3, the book notes that in the United States, a better metaphor than "melting pot" is "tossed salad" for people living together. Culture, thus, is broader than just race or ethnicity, but better describes a shared pattern of thoughts, feelings, and actions/words. "A critical distinction between the concept of culture and race or ethnicity is that it is learned, not inherited" (p. 38).

Because so many aspects of culture involve unconscious/subconscious guides for words and actions, people who study culture typically break it up into different layers or categories. Drench cites Arredondo's model (1996):

• A Dimension = predetermined characteristics (age, gender, primary language, etc.)
• B Dimension = individually controlled characteristics (education, religion, hobbies)
• C Dimension = larger contexts (history, politics, economics)

I have done graduate work using a different model of cultural classification/analysis, but that is beyond the scope of this post.

Lattanzi & Purnell

Since taking over the courses, I felt that a book by Jill Black Lattanzi and Larry Purnell (2006) was a better fit for the objectives and content. Its definition of culture was fairly similar, emphasizing social transmission, behavioral patterns and artifacts, and the ability of culture to guide both worldview and people's decision making. However, this definition is in chapter 1, and every single one of the remaining 21 addresses some primary cultural characteristic, such as ethnicity, veteran status, disability, or age group. 

The instructional model authors of this text use for helping practitioners and students move along the continuum from "unconsciously incompetent" toward "unconsciously competent" includes interrelated, concentric circles (Figure 2.6, p. 27). Each individual's culture is influenced and partially constituted by these factors:

• Largest circle (periphery) = global society
• Next circle in = community (at whatever scale)
• Next circle in = family (however defined)
• Next circle in = person as an individual. Factors that can interact with each other in a person include:
• Communication aspects
• Family roles and organization
• Workforce concerns
• Biocultural ecology (e.g., genetics)
• High-risk behaviors (e.g., alcohol use)
• Nutritional status and beliefs
• Pregnancy attitudes and practices
• Death rituals
• Spirituality
• Health care practices (e.g., attitude toward "sick" behaviors)
• Healthcare practitioner views
• Overview and heritage (e.g., education)

Why is Physical Therapy Concerned with Culture?

I think of two big reasons for this right away: PTs are "people people", and being attentive to culture achieves better outcomes.

People Profession

PTs have always worked with people directly, often for longer periods of time than other health professionals per appointment. Even though this isn't the case in some settings, it's typical for an initial PT evaluation to last 30-90 minutes. When you're talking one-on-one with someone for that long, a therapeutic relationship can develop and the PT can notice things that wouldn't be apparent in a 10-minute physician's office visit. I got into physical therapy because I'm fascinated with how God designed the human body to move.

Better Outcomes

From a more objective standpoint, there's strong research support for cultural competency in a positive relationship to outcomes of reduced pain, disability, and "falling off the radar" for patients participating in physical therapy. Because PTs are concerned with the health and well-being of not only individuals but also populations (see section above), increasing the practitioner's ability to work well and cordially with people from many different cultures can spread that positive impact.